Chapter 1:
- anatomy: science of structure & relationship among structures
- physiology: science of body functions
- homeostasis: stable conditions inside the body
- homeostatic mechanisms:
- nervous system: (fast response) sends messages by nerve impulses when it detects changes
- endocrine system: (slow response) secretes hormones into blood when it detects changes
directional terms:
- medial: toward midline
- lateral: away from midline
- superior: toward head
- inferior: away from head
- proximal: toward point of attachment of limb
- distal: away from point of attachment of limb
- superficial: toward surface of body
- deep: away from surface of body
planes:
- sagittal: divides into left & right
-midsagittal: passes through midline, divides into equal left & right
-parasagittal: divides into unequal left & right
- frontal/coronal: divides into anterior/front & posterior/back
- transverse/cross-sectional/horizontal: divides into superior/upper & inferior/lower
- oblique: passes through at an angle
body cavities: spaces w/in body that contain/protect/separate/support internal organs
Chapter 2:
- atoms: building blocks of elements
- 4 big elements (that make up 96% of all living matter):
- hydrogen
- oxygen
- nitrogen
- carbon
- matter is made of chemical elements which are substances that cannot be broken down into any simpler units by chemical means & retain same chemical properties
- protons: positively charged
- electrons: negatively charged
- neutrons: uncharged
- atomic number: number of protons in an atom
- mass number: number of protons + neutrons in an atom
- isotopes: atoms of the same element w same amount of protons & electrons, but different number of neutrons
- acids: substance that breaks apart or dissociates into one or more hydrogen ions (H+) when it dissolves in water
- bases: dissociates into one or more hydroxide ions (OH-) or absorbs one or more H+ when dissolved in water
- buffers: prevent rapid, drastic changes in pH of body fluid by converting strong acids & bases into weak ones
compounds:
- ion: an atom that gives up or gains electrons to conform to the octet rule (get 8 valence electrons)
- ionic bond: electrical attraction (btwn positively & negatively charged ions) holding ions together
- covalent bond: shared electron pair btwn 2 atoms
- polar molecules: one atom attracts electrons more strongly than the other --> one end of molecule has partial negative charge & other end has partial positive charge
- non-polar molecules: share valence electrons equally btwn atoms
Chapter 3:
cell parts:
organelle: membrane-bound structure w/in a cell that carries out specific functions
cytoplasm: area btwn membrane & nucleus; contains organelles & cytosol (fluid inside)
nucleus: houses genetic material
functions:
- controls cellular structure
- directs cellular activities
- produces ribosomes in nucleoli
plasma membrane: cell's gatekeeper; semi-permeable lipid bilayer
functions:
- barrier separating inside & outside of cell
- controls flow of substances into & out of cell
- helps identify the cell to other cells
- participates in intercellular signaling
centrosomes: consists of centriole pairs
function:
- plays a role in cell division
ribosomes: made of RNA & proteins
functions:
- make new proteins
smooth endoplasmic reticulum: doesn't have ribosomes
functions:
- synthesizes fatty acids & steriods
- inactivates/detoxifies drugs & harmful substances
- stores & releases calcium ions
rough endoplasmic reticulum: contains ribosomes on walls
function:
- make proteins
golgi complex: array of flat membrane sacs
functions:
- modifies/sorts/packages/transport proteins received from rough ER
- transfer proteins to their destinations
mitochondria: folded inner membrane surrounded by smooth outer membrane
functions:
- generates ATP/energy
membranes: transport substances
Chapter 4:
layers of skin:
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papillary region: upper part of dermis- provides epidermis w nutrients, produces keratincoytes, regulates temperature
reticular region: lower part of dermis- strengthens skin, provides elasticity, contains hair follicles & glands
Meissner's (a.k.a. tactile) corpsucle: touch receptor
Pacinian (a.k.a. lamellated) corpsucle: pressure receptor
arrector pili muscles: pulls hairs into upright position |
skin color is caused by pigments
- melanin: dark black/brown/yellow pigment
- hemoglobin: red pigment
- carotene: yellow/orange pigment
hair:
parts:
- shaft: above skin surface
- root: below surface
- hair follicle: surrounds the root
- hair root plexuses: nerve endings that surround hair follicles
nail:
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| dividing cells of a nail are located in nail matrix |
burns:
1st degree: damages epidermis; redness, mild pain
2nd degree: damages epidermis & superficial part of dermis; blisters, edema
3rd degree: damages epidermis & dermis; marble-white to black color
4th degree: damages epidermis, dermis, & additional soft tissue underlying the skin
rule of nines: used to estimate the surface area affected by burns in an adult
Chapter 5:
parts of a long bone:
- diaphysis: middle of long bone, hollow
has a hollow chamber called medullary cavity
contains yellow marrow which stores fat
- epiphysis: end of long bone, solid
contains red marrow which produces red blood cells
covered by articular cartilage
- periosteum: tough membrane covering the bone
axial skeleton: 80 bones
ribs:
appendicular skeleton: 126 bones
bones of the lower limb:
Chapter 6:
- skeletal muscle tissue is attached to the bones
-striated, voluntary:
nerve signals initiate the contraction of skeletal muscle
-produces body movements
-stabilizes the skeleton
-produces heat/maintains body temperature
- cardiac muscle tissue is found only in the heart
-striated, intercalated discs, involuntary
-makes up walls of heart
-generates force to pump blood
- smooth muscle tissue is found in most body organs
-not striated, involuntary
-forms walls of hollow organs
-stores and moves substances w/in body
-regulates organ volume
Chapter 7:
- central nervous system (CNS): composed of brain & spinal cord
-processes info/sensory data
-makes decisions/initiates response
- peripheral nervous system (PNS): consists of nervous tissue structures that lie outside the brain & spinal cord
-senses changes in environment
-sends info to CNS
-receives info from CNS
sensory (afferent) nervous system:
-somatosensory receptors
-special sense receptors
-autonomic sensory receptors
motor (efferent) nervous system:
- somatic nervous system: voluntary, controls skeletal muscles, 1 motor neuron
- autonomic nervous system: involuntary, controls smooth/cardiac/glands, 2 motor neurons
o
sympathetic: fight or flight
-uses ACh as preganglionic neurotransmitter
-epinephrine or norepinephrine as postganglionic neurotransmitter
-increases heart rate/blood pressure --> delivers oxygen & nutrients to working muscles
-increases rate of breathing --> bring more oxygen into body
-breaks down glycogen & releases glucose --> energy for working muscles
-inhibits digestion --> keeps blood from being diverted from muscles
o parasympathetic: rest & repair/rest & digest
-uses ACh as pre/postganglionic neurotransmitter
-stimulation of digestive tract --> increased digestion
-vasoconstriction decreases blood flow --> shunts it toward digestive tract
-relaxes bladder & anal muscles --> increased urination & defecation
Chapter 9:
- endocrine system: system of glands that regulate body functions through secretion of chemical messagers (hormones); maintains day-to-day homeostasis
- endocrine glands: secrete a chemical signal directly into the bloodstream
- hormone: chemical secreted into bloodstream that acts on target cells
2 types of hormones:
1. steroid: dissolves in fats or lipids; go directly into the target cell; take longer to act, longer-lasting effects
2. nonsteroid: dissolves in water; bind to receptors on target cell membrane; act faster, effects are more short-lived
Chapter 10:
components of blood:
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plasma: liquid portion of blood
formed elements: consist of many types of blood cells
erythrocytes= RBCs
leukocytes= WBCs
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formed elements:
- RBCs- deliver oxygen
- WBCs- fight foreign bodies
- platelets- clot
hemostasis helps minimize blood loss
-blood clotting/coagulation
thrombus: small clot will form in an unbroken vessel & dissolve spontaneously
embolus: blood clot that moves & can lodge in various places
hemophilia: a medical condition in which the ability of the blood to clot is severely reduced, causing the sufferer to bleed severely from even a slight injury
matching the ABO group allows safe transfusions:
- antigens: substance that has the ability to provoke an immune response
- antibodies: proteins in the blood that can bind to specific antigens
- agglutination: RBCs clump together when same antigen & antibody come in contact
- hemolysis: RBSs burst
blood types:
Chapter 11:
- pulmonary circulation: btwn heart & lungs
- systemic circulation: btwn heart & body
parts of the heart:
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atrium: collect blood from circulation
ventricle: pump that delivers blood to the circulation
valves: keep the blood flowing the right direction through the heart
atrioventricular valves: tricuspid (right side) & bicuspid/mitral (left side)
semilunar valves: pulmonic (right side) & aortic (left side) |
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arteries: blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart
veins: blood vessels that convey blood from tissues back to the heart
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Chapter 12:
- lymph: when interstitial fluid enters lymphatic vessels; drained by lymphatic or thoracic duct; eventually becomes part of the blood plasma again
- primary lymphatic organs: (sites where stem cells divide & develop into B & T cells)
-red bone marrow: T & B cells
-thymus: T cells
major immune cells:
- T-cells= T lymphocytes (made in red bone marrow & matures in thymus)
- B-cells = B lymphocytes (made & mature in red bone marrow)
- secondary lymphatic organs: (sites where most immune responses occur)
-tonsils: (
lymphatic nodules) protect against inhaled or ingested foreign substances
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spleen: largest lymphatic organ; destroys pathogens & removes worn-out blood cells; filters blood & stores blood cells
-lymphatic capillaries: drain interstitial spaces of excess fluid
-lymphatic vessels: carry lymph away from tissues
-thoracic & right lymphatic ducts: receive lymph from lymphatic vessels & empty into the junction btwn jugular & subclavian veins
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lymph nodes: filter lymph to remove foreign substances
flow of lymph:
Chapter 13:
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alveolus: air sac in the lungs
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lung cancer:
- smoking can damage lung tissue
- substances in cigarette smoke stimulate uncontrolled cellular growth in the lungs
- lung cancer is the leading cause of cancer deaths in the U.S.
Chapter 14:
gastrointestinal (GI) tract: (alimentary canal) long, continuous tube; extends from mouth to anus; includes mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small & large intestines
layers of the GI tract:
small intestines:
the large intestine: absorbs water & eliminates waste
mouth:
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| we have 32 teeth |
dietary sources of the major nutrients:
- nutrients includes carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, water, minerals, & vitamins
- essential nutrients: (amino acids, fatty acids, vitamins, minerals) specific substances that your body cannot make on its own in sufficient quantities to meet its needs
- glucose--> carbohydrates
- amino acids--> proteins
- fatty acids--> lipids
- minerals: inorganic elements, found in bones & teeth
- vitamins: organic nutrients
-fat-soluble: vitamins A, D, E, K; absorbed from digestive tract; excess can be stored in cells
-water-soluble: vitamins B, C; dissolved in body fluids; excess is excreted in urine
- anabolic reactions (synthesis reactions): molecules combine
- catabolic reactions (decomposition reactions): molecules are broken down
Chapter 15:
nephrons: functional units; each nephron extends from the cortex to the medulla
- micturition/void: act of expelling urine from urinary bladder
what a health provider sees:
- kidney diseases such as nephritis (inflammation of kidneys), glomerulonephritis (inflammation of glomeruli) can lead to renal failure
- kidneys fail --> metabolic wastes build up, normal blood composition goes awry
- dialysis: removal of waste products from blood by diffusion through a selectively permeable membrane (treatment for renal failure); must be performed about 6-12 hrs a week
-hemodialysis: uses a machine, blood is dialyzed through artificial membrane
-peritoneal dialysis: uses peritoneum as dialyzing membrane to filter blood
- dialysis = temporary solution
- kidney transplant = only permanent treatment
Chapter 16:
male reproductive organs:
female reproductive organs:
