intro to a&p final exam review

Chapter 1:

• anatomy: science of structure & relationship among structures
• physiology: science of body functions

• homeostasis: stable conditions inside the body 
• homeostatic mechanisms: 

1. nervous system: (fast response) sends messages by nerve impulses when it detects changes 
2. endocrine system: (slow response) secretes hormones into blood when it detects changes 

directional terms:

• medial: toward midline
• lateral: away from midline

• superior: toward head
• inferior: away from head 

• proximal: toward point of attachment of limb
• distal: away from point of attachment of limb

• superficial: toward surface of body
• deep: away from surface of body 

planes:

• sagittal: divides into left & right

-midsagittal: passes through midline, divides into equal left & right

-parasagittal: divides into unequal left & right 

• frontal/coronal: divides into anterior/front & posterior/back
• transverse/cross-sectional/horizontal: divides into superior/upper & inferior/lower
• oblique: passes through at an angle 

body cavities: spaces w/in body that contain/protect/separate/support internal organs

Chapter 2:

• atoms: building blocks of elements
• 4 big elements (that make up 96% of all living matter): 

1. hydrogen
2. oxygen
3. nitrogen
4. carbon

• matter is made of chemical elements which are substances that cannot be broken down into any simpler units by chemical means & retain same chemical properties

basic particles:

1. protons: positively charged 
2. electrons: negatively charged 
3. neutrons: uncharged

• atomic number: number of protons in an atom
• mass number: number of protons + neutrons in an atom

• isotopes: atoms of the same element w same amount of protons & electrons, but different number of neutrons

• acids: substance that breaks apart or dissociates into one or more hydrogen ions (H+) when it dissolves in water 
• bases: dissociates into one or more hydroxide ions (OH-) or absorbs one or more H+ when dissolved in water 
• buffers: prevent rapid, drastic changes in pH of body fluid by converting strong acids & bases into weak ones 

compounds:

• ion: an atom that gives up or gains electrons to conform to the octet rule (get 8 valence electrons)
• ionic bond: electrical attraction (btwn positively & negatively charged ions) holding ions together
• covalent bond: shared electron pair btwn 2 atoms 

• polar molecules: one atom attracts electrons more strongly than the other --> one end of molecule has partial negative charge & other end has partial positive charge
• non-polar molecules: share valence electrons equally btwn atoms 

Chapter 3:

cell parts:



organelle: membrane-bound structure w/in a cell that carries out specific functions
cytoplasm: area btwn membrane & nucleus; contains organelles & cytosol (fluid inside)
nucleus: houses genetic material
functions:

1. controls cellular structure
2. directs cellular activities
3. produces ribosomes in nucleoli

plasma membrane: cell's gatekeeper; semi-permeable lipid bilayer
functions: 

1. barrier separating inside & outside of cell
2. controls flow of substances into & out of cell
3. helps identify the cell to other cells 
4. participates in intercellular signaling

centrosomes: consists of centriole pairs

function:

1. plays a role in cell division

ribosomes: made of RNA & proteins 

functions:

1. make new proteins

smooth endoplasmic reticulum: doesn't have ribosomes 

functions:

1. synthesizes fatty acids & steriods
2. inactivates/detoxifies drugs & harmful substances
3. stores & releases calcium ions  

rough endoplasmic reticulum: contains ribosomes on walls 

function:

1. make proteins 

golgi complex: array of flat membrane sacs 

functions:

1. modifies/sorts/packages/transport proteins received from rough ER
2. transfer proteins to their destinations 

mitochondria: folded inner membrane surrounded by smooth outer membrane 

functions:

1. generates ATP/energy 

membranes: transport substances

Chapter 4:

layers of skin:

papillary region: upper part of dermis- provides epidermis w nutrients, produces keratincoytes, regulates temperature
reticular region: lower part of dermis- strengthens skin, provides elasticity, contains hair follicles & glands

Meissner's (a.k.a. tactile) corpsucle: touch receptor
Pacinian (a.k.a. lamellated) corpsucle: pressure receptor
arrector pili muscles: pulls hairs into upright position

skin color is caused by pigments

• melanin: dark black/brown/yellow pigment 
• hemoglobin: red pigment 
• carotene: yellow/orange pigment

hair:

parts:

• shaft: above skin surface
• root: below surface 
• hair follicle: surrounds the root 
• hair root plexuses: nerve endings that surround hair follicles 

nail:

dividing cells of a nail are located in nail matrix

burns:

1st degree: damages epidermis; redness, mild pain

2nd degree: damages epidermis & superficial part of dermis; blisters, edema

3rd degree: damages epidermis & dermis; marble-white to black color 

4th degree: damages epidermis, dermis, & additional soft tissue underlying the skin

rule of nines: used to estimate the surface area affected by burns in an adult

Chapter 5:

parts of a long bone:

• diaphysis: middle of long bone, hollow

has a hollow chamber called medullary cavity 

contains yellow marrow which stores fat 

• epiphysis: end of long bone, solid

contains red marrow which produces red blood cells

covered by articular cartilage

• periosteum: tough membrane covering the bone 

axial skeleton: 80 bones

ribs:

appendicular skeleton: 126 bones

bones of the lower limb:

• femur:

• knee:

• fibula & tibia:

• foot:

spinal curvatures:

Chapter 6:

• skeletal muscle tissue is attached to the bones

-striated, voluntary: nerve signals initiate the contraction of skeletal muscle

-produces body movements

-stabilizes the skeleton

-produces heat/maintains body temperature

• cardiac muscle tissue is found only in the heart

-striated, intercalated discs, involuntary 

-makes up walls of heart

-generates force to pump blood

• smooth muscle tissue is found in most body organs

-not striated, involuntary 

-forms walls of hollow organs 

-stores and moves substances w/in body

-regulates organ volume

Chapter 7:

• central nervous system (CNS): composed of brain & spinal cord

-processes info/sensory data

-makes decisions/initiates response

• peripheral nervous system (PNS): consists of nervous tissue structures that lie outside the brain & spinal cord

-senses changes in environment

-sends info to CNS

-receives info from CNS

sensory (afferent) nervous system:

-somatosensory receptors

-special sense receptors

-autonomic sensory receptors 

motor (efferent) nervous system:

• somatic nervous system: voluntary, controls skeletal muscles, 1 motor neuron
• autonomic nervous system: involuntary, controls smooth/cardiac/glands, 2 motor neurons

o sympathetic: fight or flight

-uses ACh as preganglionic neurotransmitter 

-epinephrine or norepinephrine as postganglionic neurotransmitter

-increases heart rate/blood pressure --> delivers oxygen & nutrients to working muscles

-increases rate of breathing --> bring more oxygen into body

-breaks down glycogen & releases glucose --> energy for working muscles

-inhibits digestion --> keeps blood from being diverted from muscles

o parasympathetic: rest & repair/rest & digest

-uses ACh as pre/postganglionic neurotransmitter

-stimulation of digestive tract --> increased digestion

-vasoconstriction decreases blood flow --> shunts it toward digestive tract

-relaxes bladder & anal muscles --> increased urination & defecation

neurons:

Chapter 9:

• endocrine system: system of glands that regulate body functions through secretion of chemical messagers (hormones); maintains day-to-day homeostasis
• endocrine glands: secrete a chemical signal directly into the bloodstream
• hormone: chemical secreted into bloodstream that acts on target cells 

2 types of hormones:

   1. steroid: dissolves in fats or lipids; go directly into the target cell; take longer to act, longer-lasting effects
   2. nonsteroid: dissolves in water; bind to receptors on target cell membrane; act faster, effects are more short-lived 

Chapter 10:

components of blood:

plasma: liquid portion of blood

formed elements: consist of many types of blood cells

erythrocytes= RBCs

leukocytes= WBCs

formed elements: 

• RBCs- deliver oxygen
• WBCs- fight foreign bodies
• platelets- clot

hemostasis helps minimize blood loss

-blood clotting/coagulation

thrombus: small clot will form in an unbroken vessel & dissolve spontaneously 

embolus: blood clot that moves & can lodge in various places 

hemophilia: a medical condition in which the ability of the blood to clot is severely reduced, causing the sufferer to bleed severely from even a slight injury

matching the ABO group allows safe transfusions:

• antigens: substance that has the ability to provoke an immune response
• antibodies: proteins in the blood that can bind to specific antigens
• agglutination: RBCs clump together when same antigen & antibody come in contact
• hemolysis: RBSs burst 

blood types:

Chapter 11:

• pulmonary circulation: btwn heart & lungs
• systemic circulation: btwn heart & body 

parts of the heart:

atrium: collect blood from circulation
ventricle: pump that delivers blood to the circulation
valves: keep the blood flowing the right direction through the heart
atrioventricular valves: tricuspid (right side) & bicuspid/mitral (left side)
semilunar valves: pulmonic (right side) & aortic (left side)

arteries: blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart
veins: blood vessels that convey blood from tissues back to the heart

Chapter 12:

• lymph: when interstitial fluid enters lymphatic vessels; drained by lymphatic or thoracic duct; eventually becomes part of the blood plasma again 

• primary lymphatic organs: (sites where stem cells divide & develop into B & T cells)

-red bone marrow: T & B cells

-thymus: T cells

major immune cells:

1. T-cells= T lymphocytes (made in red bone marrow & matures in thymus)
2. B-cells = B lymphocytes (made & mature in red bone marrow)

• secondary lymphatic organs: (sites where most immune responses occur)

-tonsils: (lymphatic nodules) protect against inhaled or ingested foreign substances
-spleen: largest lymphatic organ; destroys pathogens & removes worn-out blood cells; filters blood & stores blood cells
-lymphatic capillaries: drain interstitial spaces of excess fluid
-lymphatic vessels: carry lymph away from tissues
-thoracic & right lymphatic ducts: receive lymph from lymphatic vessels & empty into the junction btwn jugular & subclavian veins
-lymph nodes: filter lymph to remove foreign substances

flow of lymph:

Chapter 13:

alveolus: air sac in the lungs 

lung cancer:

• smoking can damage lung tissue
• substances in cigarette smoke stimulate uncontrolled cellular growth in the lungs 
• lung cancer is the leading cause of cancer deaths in the U.S.

Chapter 14:

gastrointestinal (GI) tract: (alimentary canal) long, continuous tube; extends from mouth to anus; includes mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small & large intestines

layers of the GI tract:


small intestines:

the large intestine: absorbs water & eliminates waste

mouth:

we have 32 teeth

dietary sources of the major nutrients:

• nutrients includes carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, water, minerals, & vitamins 
• essential nutrients: (amino acids, fatty acids, vitamins, minerals) specific substances that your body cannot make on its own in sufficient quantities to meet its needs
• glucose--> carbohydrates 
• amino acids--> proteins
• fatty acids--> lipids
• minerals: inorganic elements, found in bones & teeth
• vitamins: organic nutrients 

-fat-soluble: vitamins A, D, E, K; absorbed from digestive tract; excess can be stored in cells

-water-soluble: vitamins B, C; dissolved in body fluids; excess is excreted in urine

• anabolic reactions (synthesis reactions): molecules combine 
• catabolic reactions (decomposition reactions): molecules are broken down 

Chapter 15:

nephrons: functional units; each nephron extends from the cortex to the medulla

• micturition/void: act of expelling urine from urinary bladder

what a health provider sees:

• kidney diseases such as nephritis (inflammation of kidneys), glomerulonephritis (inflammation of glomeruli) can lead to renal failure 
• kidneys fail --> metabolic wastes build up, normal blood composition goes awry 
• dialysis: removal of waste products from blood by diffusion through a selectively permeable membrane (treatment for renal failure); must be performed about 6-12 hrs a week 

-hemodialysis: uses a machine, blood is dialyzed through artificial membrane 

-peritoneal dialysis: uses peritoneum as dialyzing membrane to filter blood 

• dialysis = temporary solution
• kidney transplant = only permanent treatment

Chapter 16:

male reproductive organs:


female reproductive organs: